Aside from accounting indicators of Value creation, Economic indicators of value creation and Market indicators of value creation, companies frequently adopt a fourth category of performance variables known as value drivers. These are measured with a class of associated metrics called Key performance indicators (KPIs). Value drivers are at the root of business performance because they are frequently leading indicators of performance, while financial results (such as ROCE, for example) are lagging indicators.

(See Chapter 32 Capital structure and the theory of perfect capital markets of the Vernimmen)

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